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VIROLOGY - CHAPTER TEN
PICORNAVIRUSES - PART TWO
RHINOVIRUSES
Dr Richard
Hunt
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© J-Y Sgro, Used with permission.
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Virus World |
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Logo image © Jeffrey
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Rhinoviruses (Rhinos - nose (Greek))
are one of the families of viruses that can cause the common cold although
many other viruses can infect the respiratory tract and cause cold-like
symptoms. It is estimated that about one third of "colds" are caused
by rhinovirus infections. There are more than 100 serotypes explaining why
vaccines against rhinoviruses have proved difficult to develop. Rhinoviruses
have a diameter of about 30nm and are
positive strand RNA viruses with a naked nucleocapsid (figure 1). They are sensitive to low
pH and, as might be expected from their symptoms, are spread by aerosols and
infect the upper respiratory tract. They can also be spread by
fomites
such as hands and other forms of direct contact. Rhinoviruses are quite stable,
lasting for hours on fomites, but are sensitive to temperature. Thus, they do not spread to the lower respiratory tract since they replicate best at a
few degrees below normal body temperature. Although the most common route
of infection is the nose, virus can also enter via the mouth and the eyes. There
is usually no gastrointestinal involvement because of the acid lability
of the virus. The virus is therefore not spread from the intestinal
tract.
RHINOVIRUS DISEASE
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There are nearly 62 million cases of the common cold annually
in the US
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52.2 million of these cases affect Americans under age 17
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There are nearly 22 million school-loss days annually due to the common cold
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There are approximately 45 million bed days annually associated with the common cold
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Seventy-five percent of common colds suffered by children under 5 years are medically attended Source:
Vital and Health Statistics Series 10, No. 200
The symptoms of a rhinovirus infection are well known:
discharging or blocked nasal passages often accompanied by sneezes, and perhaps a
sore throat. This typical "runny nose" (rhinorhea) may be accompanied by a general
malaise, cough, sore throat etc. The characteristic
symptoms occur from one to four days after infection at which time extremely
high titers of the rhinovirus are found in the nasal secretions (there can
be as many as 1000 infectious virus
particles per ml). It appears that one rhinovirus infectious virion particle is
capable of initiating disease. The virus replicates itself primarily in epithelial cells of the
nasal mucosa but there is little damage to the mucosa although infected cells
may be sloughed off. There may be edema of connective tissue.
The symptoms experienced depend on the number of virus
particles replicated. Infected cells produce a variety of molecules that such as
histamine that result in increased nasal secretions. It is the production of
such molecules rather than direct cellular destruction to accounts for
the symptoms experienced by the patient. These molecules cause changes
in vascular permeability
The primary infection
results in IgA in nasal secretions and IgG in the bloodstream. Since these
viruses do not enter the circulation, the mucosal IgA response is the most
important. This leads to
immunity and resolution of the disease although the levels of nasal IgA are
rapidly reduced. Immunity against a particular serotype may last 1 to 2 years
but as noted above there are many serotypes against which protection is not
gained. As with infections by other viral infections, interferon production is
the primary means of defense, preceding the antibody response. Interferon
production may lead to the symptoms experienced by the patient (see
Virus-Host
Interactions). Many infected persons (about 50%) do not show symptoms of a
rhinovirus infection but are nevertheless capable of passing on the
infection. Although the lower respiratory tract is usually not affected,
bronchopneumonia can occur in rhinovirus infections, particularly in
children.
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Figure 1 Human rhino virus
© J-Y Sgro, Used with permission. From
Virus World |
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EPIDEMIOLOGY
Rhinovirus infections usually occur at times of increased human
contact, that is in the colder months of the year. Many different serotypes
circulate simultaneously. Frequently children become
infected and then pass the virus to adults after an incubation time of about two
or three days. Often as many as one half of the contacts get a cold in this way.
Antigenic variation occurs.
Many infections by other viruses cause symptoms that are similar
to those of rhinoviruses. These include parainfluenzaviruses, coronaviruses and
enteroviruses
RECEPTORS
Most rhinoviruses bind to a member of the immunoglobulin super-family
of proteins, ICAM-1 which is found on the surfaces of epithelial and other
cells. This molecule mediates cell-cell adhesion in a variety of epithelial
cells. The expression of ICAM-1 is enhanced under inflammatory conditions such
as occur in a rhinovirus infection which
may lead to viral spread because of more available receptor molecules (positive
feedback loop). Because of the specificity to ICAM-1, only humans are
infected by human rhinoviruses.
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Figure 2 Human diploid fibroblasts infected with Rhinovirus (100X). © Danny L.
Wiedbrauk, William Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, Michigan
USA and
The MicrobeLibrary |
CULTURE
If it is necessary to identify the virus that gives rise to the
typical "cold" symptoms, virus can be grown on cultured cells from
nasal specimens.
Usually, human fibroblasts are used and the laboratory looks for a typical
cytopathic effect of refractile cells (figure 2). The cells are grown at around
33 degrees.
DIAGNOSIS
Many types of viruses give
"cold"-like symptoms and it is usually unnecessary to carry out
further identification. Usually it is enough to note the minor symptoms and the
seasonal infections. There are specific antibody tests available but these are
not generally used.
TREATMENT
There is usually no need to treat the
infection although treatment of the symptoms may be used. This often consists of
rehydration and keeping the airways unblocked. Physicians often prescribe
aspirin to relive fever symptoms but this may exacerbate viral proliferation if
body temperature is reduced since, as noted above, the virus is particularly
temperature-sensitive. Interferon nasal sprays have little effect. Pleconaril is
broadly active against rhinoviruses (see
Anti-Viral
Chemotherapy). The best way to avoid spreading the virus is interrupt the
infection chain by hand washing.
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